CLASSICAL HISTORY II - ROME AND THE MEDITERRANEAN

by severa

Welcome to the second timeline breaking down the surviving primary sources for Classical history. For a fuller introduction to the series, see the first timeline on ancient Greek history.

This timeline basically combines two periods. First, the early history of Rome, in which Rome went from a kingdom to a republic and became the predominant power in the Italian peninsula. Then, from about the 270s BC onward, Roman history became inextricably entangled with the affairs of the rest of the Mediterranean. Therefore, once we reach the 3rd century, material from outside Rome will be included, in particular on the Greek states of the eastern Mediterranean. It ends around 140 BC, just before civil strife would begin to tear apart the Roman Republic.

This list might look a little overwhelming at first, but if you just want the basics it's reasonably simple. The historian Livy is our main source for this period, but there are significant gaps in his surviving work. I'd recommend reading Livy books 1-10, then Plutarch's biography of Pyrrhus and the first five books of Polybius. Then read the rest of the surviving books of Livy, books 21-45. Livy cuts off a few decades before this timeline does and there aren't many surviving sources for the middle of the second century, but you could finish by reading Appian on the Third Punic War (sections 68-136). Taken together, that would be a close to continuous narrative of these centuries.

The focus of this timeline is on complete surviving works, or at least works that survive in large enough chunks that you can read them without piecing together a bunch of small fragments. But for the sake of completeness, I've also included the parts of these works that exist only in fragments or in summary. Particularly in the case of Polybius, some of these fragments are quite substantial and contain unique information.

There are also a few works of Jewish history which cover this same period. I've placed them in their own category because to a large extent they form their own narrative, mostly but not entirely separate from Roman history at this time.

Note that there are slightly different dating systems used for early Roman history, so years may not always quite align across sources.

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From Kingdom to Republic

Before 753 - 387 BC

According to legend Rome was founded in central Italy in 753 BC by Romulus. He was the first king, and there were six more after him, until the monarchy was overthrown by a revolution in 509. The new Roman Republic then fought a series of mostly successful wars against its nearby neighbors, although the city was sacked and nearly destroyed by Gauls in 387. That is the traditional story at least, and while there may be some truth to parts of it, the sources we have tend to be legendary and exaggerated, and so should be read with caution.

Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (Books 1-5)

Livy (59 BC - 17 AD), an Italian author who lived during Rome's transition from republic to empire, is by far our most important source for early Roman history. He wrote a monumental history of Rome (the title translates to "From the Founding of the City") from its beginnings to his own lifetime, but only about a quarter of what he wrote survives today. And his work was popular enough in the ancient world that it eclipsed his predecessors, whose writings mostly don't survive at all. So for better or worse, Livy is what we've got.

These first five books cover the first several centuries of Roman history. Book 1 is about the foundation of Rome, the early monarchy, and the overthrow of that monarchy. Books 2-5 cover the early Republic, as one medium sized city state among many in central Italy. Book 5 ends with the semi-legendary sack of Rome, in which Rome was supposedly burned to the ground, although this isn't really supported by modern archaeology.

Much of this material is legendary rather than strictly historical. This is clearest in the first book but it's true for the rest as well. There were hardly any surviving records from this era, so much of what Livy wrote is based on the uncertain guesswork of earlier generations of historians. Livy tends to write in a fairly sober, rationalizing tone which can obscure this, but it's important to keep in mind. Even more so than with the early Greek historians, it may be a good idea to read Livy paired with a modern historian as well, because the actual story is often substantially different than what you get from just reading primary sources.

Roman Antiquities by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Books 1-11)

Dionysius of Halicarnassus (c. 60 - c. 17 BC) is our other main surviving source for the history of early Rome. Although older than Livy, his work is less well known and less of it survives. The first 11 books remain mostly intact, although with some gaps towards the end, but the remaining books exist only in fragments. The work begins with Roman prehistory and originally ended with the Pyrrhic War in the 270s BC, but the main surviving portion ends in the 440s BC.

Roman Histories by Appian (Preface; Early History of Rome; Conquest of Central Italy, sections 1-9; Wars against the Gauls, sections 1-7)

Appian (c. 95 - c. AD 165) wrote a military history of Rome. Or rather, he wrote a series of loosely connected short works about the various wars that Rome had been involved in.

Unfortunately for this timeline, Appian chose to divide his work geographically rather than chronologically, so that wars during the same time period will be scattered about in different sections. So to get Appian's work to fit into a timeline format I've had to put these sections in a substantially different order. Of course you are free to read Appian in whatever order you choose. Hopefully dividing it in this way will at least make it clear how the various sections of his writings fit together.

Much, though not all of his work survives in full. To keep things simpler, instead of separating out the complete and incomplete sections, I've lumped them both together and simply marked the incomplete parts as fragmentary.

Hide Episodes (4 Total)

Preface

Early History of Rome (fragmentary) - Before 753 - 499 BC

Conquest of Central Italy, sections 1-9 (fragmentary) - 491 - 391 BC

Wars against the Gauls, sections 1-7 (fragmentary) - 387 BC

Biographies

Parallel Lives by Plutarch (Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Publicola, Coriolanus, Camillus)

Plutarch (c. 46 AD - c. 119) was a Greek living in the Roman Empire who wrote a well known series of moralizing biographies called Parallel Lives, each comparing and contrasting the career of a famous Greek and a famous Roman.

These first few Roman biographies are about figures who are more legendary than real. Romulus and Numa were the traditional first and second kings of Rome. Publicola (also known as Poplicola) was supposedly a significant figure in the overthrow of the monarchy. And Coriolanus was supposedly a famous traitor during the early Republic, although he may not have existed at all. Camillus is the most historical of these - he was a major Roman leader before during and after the Gallic sack of Rome - although most of his story is likely quite exaggerated.

Note that the life of Camillus overlaps with the next section of this timeline.

Hide Episodes (5 Total)

Romulus - Legendary, supposedly ruled 753–716 BC

Numa Pompilius - Legendary, supposedly ruled 715–672 BC

Publicola - Semi-legendary, supposedly died 503 BC

Coriolanus - Legendary, supposedly lived 5th century BC

Camillus - c. 446 - 365 BC

Fragments

Roman History (fragments) by Cassius Dio (Books 1 - Book 7, page 215)

Cassius Dio (c. 165 AD - c. 235) wrote a lengthy history of Rome from the foundation of the city all the way through about 220 AD. The only part of his work to survive more or less in full covers the period from 65 BC to 54 AD, outside the scope of this timeline, but many fragments from other sections survive as well.

Because these fragments are combined from several sources, there isn't a single numbering system. However, this section of the timeline ends at the end of what's marked as Page 215 in the version linked here.

Roman Antiquities (fragments) by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Books 12-13)

The rest of Dionysius's work only exists in fragments, which begin here.

Italian Expansion

387 - 280s BC

After the sack of Rome by the Gauls, Roman power was at an extreme low. However, the following century of warfare proved very successful, and by the end of it Rome had become the dominant power in central Italy.

Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (Books 6-10)

387-293 BC

After the sack of Rome, Livy's history starts to become less legendary and more based on actual records, although it's important to note many aspects of his narrative, from the size of battles to the nature of the Roman constitution, are still thought to be anachronistic projections of more recent events into the deeper past. As with Books 1-5, it may be a good idea to consult modern histories as well.

After Book 10 there is a ten book gap, and Livy only resumes at the start of the Second Punic War.

Roman Histories by Appian (Conquest of Central Italy, section 10; Samnite wars, sections 1-12; Wars against the Gauls, sections 8-12)

Hide Episodes (3 Total)

Conquest of Central Italy, section 10 (fragmentary) - 384 BC

Wars against the Gauls, sections 8-12 (fragmentary) - 367 - 349 BC

Samnite wars, sections 1-12 (fragmentary) - 343 - 290 BC

Fragments

Roman History (fragments) by Cassius Dio (Book 7, page 217 - Book 8)

Roman Antiquities (fragments) by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Books 14-18)

Ab Urbe Condita (Periochae) by Livy (Book 11)

Although most of Livy's work is lost, we do still have summaries of the missing books (except for Books 136 and 137) thanks to some fourth century scribe. These summaries, known as the Periochae, are included here for the sake of completeness.

Rome Overseas

280s - 218 BC

Having conquered most of mainland Italy, Rome now began warring with other powers in the Mediterranean. Most notably the invasion of Italy by the Greek king Pyrrhus of Epirus (280 - 275 BC), and in the First Punic War (264 - 241 BC), a decades long struggle with the North African city of Carthage for control of Sicily.

From here on this timeline will be including sources from Jewish and especially Greek history as well. At this point in time the Greek world was mostly dominated by the Hellenistic kingdoms founded after the death of Alexander the Great, although the city states, now grouped into larger alliances such as the Achaean League, were still significant as well. The Jews were a subject people being fought over by the Ptolemaic and Seleucid dynasties.

The western Mediterranean before the First Punic War

Histories by Polybius (Books 1-2)

Polybius (c. 200 - c. 118 BC) was a Greek statesmen from the Achaean League, a confederation of city states in the Peloponnese. As a result of the Third Macedonian War, Polybius was sent to Rome as a high status hostage. There he befriended a number of prominent Romans and eventually wrote a history of the whole Mediterranean during Rome's rise to power, of which only the first six books survive more or less in full.

These first two books cover the First Punic War as well as Greek politics around the same time.

The Oxford edition, the one linked, contains all six of the first books unabridged. The Penguin edition abridges some of these books, but includes more of the later fragments.

Roman Histories by Appian (Wars in Iberia, sections 1-7; The Punic Wars, sections 1-5; The Illyrian Wars, sections 1-8; Samnite Wars, sections 12-30; Wars against the Gauls, sections 13-14; Conquest of Sicily, sections 1-4)

The very brief fragments from the Wars against the Gauls take place around 283 BC.

The fragments from the Samnite Wars are mainly about the war with Pyrrhus (280 - 275 BC).

The selections from the Wars in Iberia, the Punic Wars, and the Conquest of Sicily all take place during the First Punic War, from 264 to 241 BC.

The selection from the Illyrian Wars is about the First and Second Illyrian Wars (229 - 228 and 220 - 219 BC). (Illyria was a region in the Balkans, just opposite the Adriatic from Italy.)

Hide Episodes (6 Total)

Wars against the Gauls, sections 13-14 (fragmentary) - ca. 283 BC

Samnite Wars, sections 13-30 (fragmentary) - 283 - 265 BC

Wars in Iberia, sections 1-7 - 264 - 241 BC

The Punic Wars, sections 1-5 - 264 - 241 BC

Conquest of Sicily, sections 1-4 (fragmentary) - 264 - 241 BC

The Illyrian Wars, sections 1-8 - 229 - 219 BC

Biographies

Parallel Lives by Plutarch (Pyrrhus, Aratus of Sicyon, Agis IV, Cleomenes III)

All of these biographies are about Greeks rather than Romans. Pyrrhus is of importance to Roman history, but the others are all leaders from the Peloponnese.

Hide Episodes (4 Total)

Pyrrhus - 319/318 - 272 BC

Aratus of Sicyon - 271 - 213 BC

Agis IV - c. 265 - 241 BC

Cleomenes III - Died 219 BC

De Viris Illustribus by Cornelius Nepos (Hamilcar)

Cornelius Nepos (c. 110 BC - c. 25) was an ancient biographer. Most of what survives from him are a few short biographies of Greek generals (see the ancient Greek timeline for those) but we also have a few similarly brief biographies that fit better in Roman history, including this one of Hamilcar, the Carthaginian general who was the father of Hannibal.

Hide Episodes (1 Total)

Hamilcar - c. 275 - 228 BC

Jewish History

Antiquities of the Jews by Josephus (Book 12.2)

Josephus was a Jewish historian who lived during the early Roman Empire. and wrote two significant works about Jewish history. This work, Antiquities of the Jews, is a comprehensive Jewish history, covering events all the way from the Book of Genesis down to Josephus's day.

This section is about the writing of the Septuagint, a famous translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek.

Fragments

Roman History (fragments) by Cassius Dio (Books 9-12)

Bibliotheca Historica (fragments) by Diodorus Siculus (Books 22-25)

Diodorus Siculus was a Sicilian historian from the first century BC who wrote a monumental history of the Mediterranean, much of which survives. He has a mixed reputation among modern historians, some of whom think he did little but copy other sources without much understanding himself. Either way, his work covers some important periods we otherwise would have very little record of.

The surviving books of Diodorus's work are all about Greek history, but there are many surviving fragments about Roman history as well, which are included here.

Roman Antiquities (fragments) by Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Books 19-20)

These last fragments of Dionysius are about the Pyrrhic War.

Ab Urbe Condita (Periochae) by Livy (Books 12-20)

The Second Punic War

218 - 201 BC

Two decades after the First Punic War ended in Roman victory, Rome once again fought a lengthy war with Carthage, this time for dominance of the whole western Mediterranean. Although they won in the end, the war was among the most catastrophic in Roman history.

Histories by Polybius (Books 3-6)

Book 3 of Polybius details the causes and beginning of the Second Punic War. Books 4 and 5 are about contemporaneous events in Greece. Book 6 on the other hand, is a digression about the Roman constitution and how it contributed to Rome's victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War. About two thirds of book six survives.

Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (Books 21-30)

These ten books of Livy are all about the Second Punic War.

Roman Histories by Appian (Wars in Iberia, sections 8-38; War Against Hannibal, sections 1-61; The Punic Wars, sections 6-67; Conquest of Sicily, sections 5-7; Macedonian Wars, sections 1-4)

The first four selections are about the Second Punic War itself, detailing the conflict in Iberia where the war began, in Italy (the "War Against Hannibal"), in Sicily ("Conquest of Sicily"), and in Africa, where the war ended ("The Punic Wars"). The selection from the Macedonian Wars is about the First Macedonian War, which took place during the Second Punic War and was partly caused by it.

Hide Episodes (5 Total)

Wars in Iberia, sections 8-38

War Against Hannibal, sections 1-61

Conquest of Sicily, sections 5-7 (fragmentary)

The Punic Wars, sections 6-67

Macedonian Wars, sections 1-4 (fragmentary) - 214 - 205 BC

Biographies

Parallel Lives by Plutarch (Fabius Maximus, Marcus Claudius Marcellus)

Hide Episodes (2 Total)

Fabius Maximus - c. 280 - 203 BC

Marcus Claudius Marcellus - c. 270 - 208 BC

Jewish History

3 Maccabees

This is a book of the Bible, although it is not considered to be canon by Jewish or most Christian denominations.

Despite the title, this work has nothing to to with the Maccabean Revolt. Nor does it have anything to do with the Second Punic War. Nor is it really a work of history, being primarily if not entirely a work of fiction. In the story, the Egyptian ruler Ptolemy IV Philopator is blocked from entering the Jewish Second Temple and in his anger contrives to have the Jews under his rule enslaved and killed, a plot which is eventually stopped through divine intervention.

Included for the sake of completeness.

Fragments

Roman History (fragments) by Cassius Dio (Books 13-17)

Bibliotheca Historica (fragments) by Diodorus Siculus (Books 26-27)

Histories (fragments) by Polybius (Books 7-15.19)

Rome Ascendant

200 - 130s BC

With Carthage defeated, the Roman Republic had a free hand to expand its influence across the Mediterranean. In a series of wars in Iberia, Greece, the Balkans, Anatolia, and North Africa, Rome conquered its enemies and gradually began annexing new provinces. Most notably, in the year 146 BC Rome sacked both Carthage and Corinth, bringing to an end the independence of both Carthage and Greece.

Ab Urbe Condita by Livy (Books 31-45)

These are the last books of Livy which survive. Several of the last five books have substantial sections missing.

Note that the Oxford translation of these books is in two volumes (I linked the first one), but is unabridged. The second volume also includes all the Periochae, the summaries of Livy's lost books. The Penguin translation includes all fifteen books in one volume, but is abridged.

Roman History by Appian (Syrian War, sections 1-48; The Illyrian Wars, sections 9-11; The Punic Wars, sections 68-136; Wars in Iberia, sections 39-75; The Macedonian Wars, sections 5-35; Syrian War, sections 65-70)

The first selection from the Syrian War is mostly about the Roman-Seleucid War (192 - 188 BC), with some additional information about events in the Seleucid empire thereafter. The selection from the Macedonian Wars covers both the Second and Third Macedonian Wars (200 - 196 and 172 - 168 BC). The selection from the Illyrian Wars is mainly about the fighting that took place in Illyria during the Third Macedonian War. The selection from The Punic Wars covers the whole of the Third Punic War (149 - 146 BC).

The selection from Wars in Iberia covers several different wars: the First Celtiberian War (181 - 179 BC), the Second Celtiberian War (154 - 151 BC), and the Lusitanian War (155 - 139 BC). Appian is our main surviving source for many of these conflicts.

The last section from the Syrian War is essentially a very brief appendix covering the history of the Seleucid dynasty from the death of its founder Seleucus in 281 to its dissolution in 63 BC. Because it's so brief, I've included the whole thing here rather than break it up into extremely small sections.

Hide Episodes (6 Total)

Syrian War, sections 1-48 - 192 - 188 BC

The Macedonian Wars, sections 5-35 (fragmentary) - 200 - 168 BC

The Illyrian Wars, sections 9-11 - 172 - 168 BC

The Punic Wars, sections 68-136 - 149 - 146 BC

Wars in Iberia, sections 39-75 - 181 - 139 BC

Syrian War, sections 65-70 - 281 BC - 63 BC

Biographies

Parallel Lives by Plutarch (Cato the Elder, Philopoemen, Titus Quinctius Flamininus, Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus)

Note that Philopoemen was a Greek rather than a Roman.

Hide Episodes (4 Total)

Cato the Elder - 234 - 149 BC

Philopoemen - 253 BC - 183 BC

Titus Quinctius Flamininus - c. 228 - 174 BC

Lucius Aemilius Paullus Macedonicus - c. 229 - 160 BC

De Viris Illustribus by Cornelius Nepos (Hannibal, Cato the Elder)

While Hannibal is of course best known for his efforts in the Second Punic War, this brief biography talks more about his career after that, so I've put it here instead.

The biography of Cato is taken from a longer work which is now lost.

Hide Episodes (2 Total)

Hannibal - 247 - c. 182 BC

Cato the Elder - 234 - 149 BC

Jewish History

This is a significant period of Jewish history. After centuries of rule by foreign powers, a family known as the Maccabees led a successful revolt and over a few decades established an independent Jewish state known as the Hasmonean dynasty. Because of its importance, there are several Biblical books describing the period in addition to Josephus.

Antiquities of the Jews by Josephus (Book 12.3 - Book 13.7)

2 Maccabees

2 Maccabees is another book from the Bible. It's considered canonical by many Christian denominations, but not by Protestants or Judaism.

This is not a continuation of 1 Maccabees, but rather an independent retelling of the Maccabean Revolt. 2 Maccabees is considered less reliable and more sensationalized than 1 Maccabees, but it begins at an earlier date so I've listed it first.

4 Maccabees

4 Maccabees is more of a work of philosophy than of history. It's basically a discussion/expansion of several of the martyr stories in 2 Maccabees, using the deaths to argue for a blend of Jewish and Greek philosophical ideas about the primacy of reason. This was written several centuries after the events in question and is not considered canonical by Jewish or most Christian groups. Included for the sake of completeness.

1 Maccabees

This is the most historically reliable of the Biblical writings on the Maccabees, but it begins its narrative later than 2 Maccabees, so I've listed it afterwards. Considered canonical by many Christian denominations, but not by Protestants or Judaism.

Fragments

Roman History (fragments) by Cassius Dio (Books 18-25)

Bibliotheca Historica (fragments) by Diodorus Siculus (Books 28-34.30)

Ab Urbe Condita (Periochae) by Livy (Books 46-61)

Histories (fragments) by Polybius (Books 15.20-39.8)

The last of the fragments of Polybius.

Epitomes

In addition to the longer works of history listed above, there are also a number of much briefer summaries of Roman history, known as epitomes. Because these works are so short, because they are just summaries of other works, and because they were typically written many centuries after the events they describe, they are generally of limited historical value, unless our main sources for a particular time period happen to be lost.

Because these are so short, rather than breaking them down into very small units I have included them here at the end, covering the entire period of this timeline.

Abridgement of Roman History by Eutropius (Books 1.1-4.17)

Eutropius was a Roman official living in the late 300s AD who wrote a summary of Roman history dating from the foundation of the city to the reign of the emperor Jovian (363-364 AD).

Breviarium rerum gestarum populi Romani [Summary of the Accomplishments of the Romans] by Festus (Sections 1-12)

Festus was a Roman historian who wrote this very short summary of Roman military conquests around 370 AD at the behest of the emperor Valens. The information is not presented in full chronological order so the dividing point here is somewhat arbitrary and it includes some events that happened centuries after the scope of this timeline.

Epitome of Roman History by Florus (Books 1.1-1.35)

Florus was a historian living around 100 AD who wrote a summary of Roman history, based mainly on the work of Livy.

Epitome of Pompeius Trogus by Justinus (Books 18-36.3)

Justinus was a Roman writer who probably lived around the second century AD. He wrote a summary of a much longer history by one Pompeius Trogus. The longer work no longer survives, but this summary does. Although the work is very brief, it does details not found elsewhere, particularly about the Hellenistic kingdoms. The first 17 books of his are included in the Greek timeline.

Roman History by Velleius Paterculus (Book 1)

Velleius Paterculus (c. 19 BC - c. AD 31) wrote a brief history of Rome up through 30 AD.

Note that a significant portion of Book 1 is missing.

Timeline updated: Dec. 20, 2024